Kontan’s Place

achy…but it’s a good achy

I’ve made it through three classes of kick aerobics. So far so good…well, if you don’t count the soreness of muscles that have not seen any action in a year….or the rolling of my foot that almost brought me to tears last night. I went for a round kick at the targets and got off balance. Thought it was just a little pop, or pull. You know, the quick pain that goes away. Nope. It got worse. Woke up with it better this morning, but it is still pretty sore. I’ll survive…and be better for the experience, right?

NCLB sucks

I am losing my freakin mind!  Just about to start a documentation process and needed to get this out so that I do not put it on the “official” record.  NCLB needs to DIE!!!  The required documentation, call it CYA if you will, is unbelievable!  Good job Johnny, (write that down). Get your head up Ryan. (write that down)  Document everything and then graph it in comparison with other students.  There is also the charting/graphing of an individual students grade compared to that of the rest of the class, as well as the charting/graphing of the class average to the average of all classes.  SO much time is spent documenting, charting, plotting, graphing, and such that teaching seems to fall by the wayside!  I’m all about teacher accountability, but the extent of this is SO time consuming that teachers fall short in other areas.  Your high achieving students are going to do well.  They are determined to do so.  The low achieving students are low achieving for a reason and that reason DOES need to be identified, however NOT at the expense of those in the middle…THESE are the students who will be left behind.  So much time is spent trying to get lazy Lucy to do her work, turn it in, and pay attention that the student who truly needs help is left out in the cold.  Motivation is my key issue.  I can not do the homework for the student.  At some point students AND parents are going to have to be accountable.  Teachers need to be able to teach, to educate!  I did not get a degree in documentation/stats and measures.  BS in Secondary education, Social Science with an emphasis in American History. MA in American History. 

Rant over. Please go back to your regularly scheduled blog hopping.

Shouldn’t be amused…but I am!

I know I shouldn’t be amused, but it is really amusing to watch! Friday my students spent the day in the media center researching slavery.  It was a simple follow instructions assignment. I carried through the process of searching Google for specific items, selecting certain websites, and asking various questions about the essay or information.  After they finished the 25 steps they were given free time to research slave life, slave narratives, etc…  The introduction to this assignment was Thursday.  Post test they were to read a section on slavery and slave life.  So, they should have been prepared today, that is, IF they followed instructions.  This morning they have two questions: a) Describe the living and working conditions of slaves. b) Discuss the interrelationship of cotton production, slavery, and development of the state.    Oh my. Deer in the headlights!  I do not think they are unprepared to write at least a page on the required information.  They are likely just overwhelmed by the prospect of writing one page in 50 minutes.  They’re ninth graders, few of which have the mentality of my nine year old procrastinator who once told her Dad not to worry about her book report, she could write in one hour, no problem.  Students have been working for thirty minutes now.  Several are finished.  Those who did not do the reading,as instructed, Thursday and Friday are struggling.  Don’t worry. I’m leaving them alone to write at the moment, but we will proof and correct what they have written over the next few days as we discuss everything leading up to the Civil War.                                            

Bitterness and Blame: Prisons and Prisoners of the Civil War

The emotional turmoil of prison life is profoundly identifiable in prison diaries, memoirs, and historical evaluations. In the evaluation of life in the prisons, historians struggle to lay blame and explain how both Confederate and Union governments as well as the citizens nearby seemingly overlooked atrocities of war such as those prisoners of war experienced. There are many commonalities in the historiography of prisons and prisoners of the Civil War period. The prisons, described most often as dens of filth with prisoners suffering from inadequate food and poor sanitation, most scholars agree, were deplorable. Most historians agree prison conditions were atrocious. Conclusions deviate in the tone of writing and with the assigned culprit for blame.
Personal accounts, narratives, and diaries published immediately following the Civil War were much harsher in their descriptions of prison life and treatment. It is the opinion of some historians that the elaborate descriptions of maltreatment were resulting from the need to convince the government those former prisoners of war deserved pensions. Some accounts demonstrated obvious anger for the captors. Union prisoners held by the Confederacy attempted to show how brutal their captors were. Confederates, defending their virtue, portrayed the North as oppressors. These views are rather indicative of the Lost Cause evaluations emerging after the war.
William Best Hesseltine, in his introduction to Civil War Prisons (1997), simply states, “no prisoner loves his jailer”(p6). This statement alone gives explanation to the various tones of writing regarding the Civil War. He further states, “prisoners in confinement and in varying states of illness were in no position to make objective judgments” (p7). When in misery it is easy to declare deliberate the hardships imposed by one’s captor. To some degree, the captor may be at fault for improper treatment, but maybe not always.
Civil War Prisons (1997), edited by Hesseltine, is a collection of essays concerning various Union and Confederate prisons. Papers presented in this work describe life at Andersonville, Fort Warren, Rock Island, Libby Prison, Elmira, and Johnson’s Island. The final chapter deals with the prison diary of Edmund E. Ryan. Hesseltine, a leading Civil War scholar, was before his death president of the Wisconsin Historical Society and professor of history at the University of Wisconsin. He strives to portray the history of this era without bias. Hesseltine declares that records of the Civil War prisons were incomplete and inadequate to use as a determination to place blame. He does not minimize the brutal nature of prison life, but indicates there are more forces at work than mere thirst for power upon the part of captors. The purpose of his work is to illustrate how carefully objective students studying the Civil War prisons need to be in separating truth from propaganda (p8).
Minor H. McLain, former prisoner of war during World War II and later associate professor of history at the State College in Salem, Massachusetts, presents two scenarios in his doctoral thesis regarding how prisoners may react to their captors. In “The Military Prisons at Fort Warren”, included in Hesseltine’s Civil War Prisons, McLain presents the theory that the prisoner will develop a respect, not to be confused with a like of friendship, for his captors; or the prisoner will develop a hatred for his enemy unparalleled on the battlefield (p32). This is easy to discern when comparing diary accounts published in the years immediately following the war and memoirs published twenty or thirty years later. Generally, accounts published just after the Civil War reveal bitterness and uncompromising descriptions of atrocities faced. Such is the case in Beyond the Lines (1864) by J.J. Geer.
Geer’s account, written from the perspective of a prisoner with no respect for his captors, regards Confederates as savages because of their views on slavery. Geer declares he is presenting a “straightforward and unvarnished account of facts”(p3). Declaring slavery repulsive and necessary to expose, Geer’s bias is apparent. The tone of his writing expresses hateful sentiment for his captors and a grand scale view of the Union. He describes Union military personnel as “the noblest men in the nation . . . (suffering) for country’s sake” (p17). Geer’s work is indicative of Lost Cause views. However, his tone of bitterness is probably more the result of resentment than an effort to portray prevailing thought of the period.
The memoir of Ezra Hoyt Ripple’s, Dancing Along the Deadline: The Andersonville Memoir of a Prisoner of the Confederacy (1996), edited by Mark A. Snell, contrasts Geer’s bitterness. Ripple claims to compose his memoirs for posterity’s sake, it is not meant as propaganda. Throughout the work Ripple does not portray anger or resentment toward his Confederate captors. He usually references them with respect, especially those who had actually seen combat. Snell speculates this may have been because of Ripples softening feelings over the years or because of patriotism of the early twentieth century. During this revisionist period there was much recognition of both the good and bad of Civil War and Reconstruction eras. Ripple may not have been intentionally propagandizing his experiences, but to some degree that is the effect. Although little embellishment is obvious in Ripple’s memoir, he does reveal prison officials as victims of circumstance and strives to portray them as such instead of the evil and inhumane characters many had made them out to be. As Hesseltine evaluates in his article “The Propaganda Literature of Confederate Prisons” (1935), embellishments of prison atrocities are tools of propaganda during and immediately after the Civil War.
All historical accounts of prison life during the Civil War are a testament to the devastating life experienced. Hesseltine states in the “The Propaganda Literature of Confederate Prisons” (1935) and Civil War Prisons: A Study in War Psychology (1930), the 13, 000 graves at Andersonville evidence poverty and inefficiency of the Confederate prison system (p59). In review, Charles Ramsdell declares this as the “first systematic and adequate study of the subject” (p480). According the Ramsdell, Hesseltine refutes charges of confederate wanton cruelty.
History of Andersonville Prison (1968), Ovid Futch, attempts no comparison with other prisons. He attempts to present an unbiased account exposing speculations of deliberate abuse and neglect. Futch concludes Andersonvilles’s failures are a direct result of improper planning and poor timing. He declares not only Henry Wirz, prison supervisor, to blame, but also the entire confederate government. Andersonville atrocities were no secret. Even after periodic inspections, few changes took place. With the works of Hesseltine and Futch, the trend toward revisionist ideology becomes obvious.
William Marvel, in Andersonville: The Last Depot (1994), also argues Confederate inefficiency and poverty as being contributors to mass casualties in the Confederate prison at Andersonville declaring the prisons hasty establishment and failure to reach completion before the arrival of prisoners is to blame. Tried and hung for war crimes, Henry Wirz took blame for the death toll and poor conditions at the Georgia prison. Although not a pleasant or likeable character by description, Wirz suffered as a scapegoat for Andersonville sufferings. In reality, he became the victim of indifferent Confederate commanders and the failing Confederate economy. Marvel uses arguments declaring victimization to exonerate Wirz of being solely responsible for the lacking facility and care at Andersonville. Marvel also attempts to blame Union decisions to cease prisoner exchanges for the high death toll at Andersonville. This argument is unsubstantiated in this and other works. In his review of Andersonville: the Last Depot (1994), Walter Edgar, University of South Carolina, declares Marvel’s argument for the Unions deliberate exacerbation of the prison tragedies by suspension of exchanges as unconvincing and properly dismissed (p157). War is not pleasant, nor is prison life. It is not fathomable that the Lost Cause idea of suspending exchanges of prisoners was for creating more propaganda. It is more plausible the cessation of exchanges was due to conflict between Union and Confederate commanders regarding equal exchange of officers and black troops for white troops. To exchange a single black Union soldier for a single white Confederate soldier indicated equality, which the South was not willing to do.
Similar in detail to Andersonville: The Last Depot (1994) and Dancing Along the Deadline, Edward F. Roberts provides descriptions of Andersonville life in Andersonville Journey (1998). Roberts also declares Wirz a scapegoat. The book, divided into three parts, details an aspect of Andersonville in each section. Part one describes life at Andersonville, including the scarcity of food, shelter and clean water. Roberts evaluates attempted reforms to better accommodate prisoners. This section also introduces Henry Wirz. Part two is dedicated to the transfer of prisoners just before the end of the war, but concentrates mostly on the arrest, trial and hanging of Wirz. Part three discusses post-war actions of prisoner care, the establishment of a proper cemetery and remembering those kept at Andersonville prison and its horrific legacy.
Although Andersonville is the most notorious prison of the Civil War, it is not the only prison. Historiography addresses similar issues of inadequacy at other prisons, north and South. James I. Robertson Jr. directs attention to the Andersonville of the North in his essay, “The Scourge of Elmira”, presented in Hesseltine’s Civil War Prisons (1997). Robertson describes conditions similar to that at Andersonville: overcrowding, poor sanitation, and lack of necessities. Michael Horigan does the same in Elmira: Death Camp of the North (2002). Horigan declares the horrendous conditions where and aggressive retaliation policy adopted by Union government in response to known atrocities of prisoner life in the Confederacy. He also connects treatment with the cease of prisoner exchange as an attempt to hasten the end of the war. This connection is plausible if based on the idea that holding prisoners prevents them from strengthening enemy forces. However, it does not release officials from the responsibility of depravity experienced in the prisons.
Benton McAdams, Rebels at Rock Island: The Story of a Civil War Prison (2000), compares a sixteen percent mortality rate at Rock Island to the thirty percent at Andersonville and twenty-four percent at Elmira. Hardships faced at Rock Island pale in comparison to those at Elmira or Andersonville. McAdams declares the poor reputation of Rock Island stems from a propaganda war between the prison commandant, Adolphus J. Johnson, and journalist Joseph Baker Danforth Jr. Danforth, a Democrat opposing the war, using his journalistic forum to expose and embellish prison faults. Inappropriate comments by Johnson indicating a wish to see prisoners starve did not help ease tensions or remove substance for Danforth to elaborate.
Although propaganda offers negative connotations in evaluating literature, it is usually not without some foundation. Michael P Gray dedicates an entire chapter to prison torture techniques in his work The Business of Captivity (2001). Gray describes, in detail, torture methods used such as a seven-foot box known as a sweatbox that kept a punished prisoner enclosed for a few moments that seemed like hours. He also describes barrel shirts worn as a means of embarrassment for prisoners caught stealing from messmates or other smaller infractions. Reserved for severe punishment was hanging by the thumbs or a practiced called bucking and gagging. Bucking and gagging involved restriction of movement and a wooden block, large enough to split the corners of one’s mouth, placed as a gag (125). With such actions as this, it is no wonder historiography of Civil War prisons reveals much atrocity and bitterness.
Some prisoners did not sit idle without protest to their plight. Edited by George L. Anderson, A Petition Regarding the Conditions in the CSM by John Fraser describes inadequate shelter, rations and care received by prisoners in Columbia, South Carolina. Included in the petition is a statement that the petitioners do not believe their captors are recognizing the extent of prisoner sufferings. The next statement requests no retaliation for the petition. This indicates the previous statement was included to ease any tensions aggravated by such a petition.
In another work written during the war, Henry S. White details his three-month incarceration in eighteen letters compiled to the Zion’s Herald, and independent Methodist newspaper. These letters are published and include editor’s notes by Edward Jervey in Prison Life Among the Rebels (1990). Jervey states White’s anti-southern biases are clear and his opinions should not indicate fact (xiii). This statement is in concurrence with the earlier mentioned advice, by Hesseltine, for students to remain objective when evaluating such a sensitive and emotional subject as prison life.
In researching Civil War prison life one will come across terms such as heroism, nobility, horror, evil and cowardice. These are all aspects addressed in Yankee Rebel (1966), edited by John G. Barrett. This work consists of the diary of Edward Dewitt Patterson, a northerner who chose allegiance to the South. He was first kept prisoner at Fort Delaware, then Johnson’s Island. Although he describes the unsanitary conditions and inadequate food in the prisons, like Ezra Ripple, Patterson describes his captors as predominantly respectful. His tone of writing is matter-of-fact, not bitter nor condescending. He writes in a very descriptive style and describes Confederate soldiers as noble, honorable and high-minded. Bias to his adopted home in the South he does not speak poorly of the North. He continuously declares the North as more resourceful, and adopts Lost Cause sentiment in stating the Union knows it cannot defeat the will of the Southerner. Yankee Rebel (1966) is one of few personal accounts that address events of the war outside prison walls. The only outside information addressed in memoirs of Andersonville or Elmira are the rumors of prison exchange. Patterson was obviously more fortunate in obtaining outside information. In his writing as a prisoner of war, there is much reminiscence of days gone by.
In Libby Life: Experiences of a Prisoner of War (1865) General Frederic Fernandez Cavada offers another descriptive account of prison life. The published work, compiled from the frequent writings of Cavada upon newspaper margins and paper scraps, describes Libby prison in elegant detail and creates a mental picture of disappointing prisoner accommodations. Cavada took to writing of his experiences as a means to pass the time. A commonality between prisoners, regardless of where held, is the large amount of idle time they experienced. Unlike other works of this period, such as The Southern Side; or Andersonville (1876), by Randolph Stevenson, Cavada’s is not indicative of a propaganda tool to expand upon the horror or prisons or to illicit anger toward the opposing force.
In ”Libby Prison: A Study of Emotions” (1958), Frank Byrne declares propaganda and anger toward captors North or South, stems from events caused by fear. In his revisionist view, it was fear, Byrne says, not shortages, which caused actions condemned by propagandists. Prison officials feared losing control, therefore overcompensating to regain or keep power. As a means of control, guards used withholding of rations, ball and chains to restrict movement, or stockade confinement.
It is true that guards and prison supervisors feared losing control of their captives. In multiple works, scenarios are described where guards use withholding rations to gain information. Particularly was the case if suspecting a riot or escape attempt. Torture tactics earlier described presented a means of instigating fear, therefore keeping control.
Interpretations in the historiography of Civil War prisons and the life within are the same with regard to filth and depravity. Some prisons were better than others were; yet, none were adequate for quality care. Differences arise in the culprit to blame for atrocities committed in the name of war. The North blames the South and the South blames the North, each condemning the other for neglect.
Memoirs are the works with the most diversity in blame. Those published in the early twentieth century were less harsh in reference to their captors with some authors declaring them victims of inadequate funding and instructions from unaware ranking officials. Although some guards were brutal, others were respectful and described as such. The change from earlier published accounts is partly due to the passage of time and partly to patriotism and the desire to move past Reconstruction era animosity. There is revisionist influence upon writing of the early Twentieth century. Accepted is the fact that prison conditions were poor and prisoners suffered. However, revisionists declare the inability to correct problems was the cause of continued depravity, not intentional brutality. Accordingly, the governments did the best they could with what they had.
Written without obvious bias are relatively few works. The works of Hesseltine and Futch are the most revered by scholars. Before the Civil War ended works were being published and the topic of prisons being discussed among journalist outlets such as Harper’s Weekly and Zion’s Herald. It is only in the late Twentieth century that authors began suggesting that despite all the obstacles, governments were ultimately responsible for prison failures. Still, objectivity is required in any study of history. War is not pleasant and atrocity abounds. In evaluating any historiography, one has the benefit of hindsight to form opinions and evaluations. In the case of Civil War prisons and prison life, Hesseltine was correct in declaring, no prisoner loves his jailer. The evidence supports this. Regardless of the first hand narratives, the death toll speaks for itself. Governments were negligent, as were guards, prison commandants and even the citizens of the Union and Confederacy. Their choices of inaction sealed the fate of many individuals.

look what I found!

we’ve spent the morning catching up on housework and look what I found!!!

This is our kitchen table. I haven’t seen it in weeks. Why? B/C it frequently becomes a depository for all the mail and kids papers. Anyone else inundated with paper? OMG could we save a few trees please?!?!

AND do we really need every single worksheet that is completed at school? Just throw it away right? Ohhhh you try it. If you get caught, it’s over. Then you have to explain to a five year old why you aren’t keeping her addition worksheets right along with the wonderful picture she did in art.

rant over…go back to your regularly scheduled blog browsing and have a nice day

It’s the weekend thang!

Welcome to the weekend where we will attempt to do all that we put off during the week while also frequently visiting our computers to blog search, visit Michele’s, and waste a good amount of time relaxing and enjoying the amusement blog hopping brings. Or maybe you just accidently stumbled here by clicking NEXT! Either way…WELCOME!

Don’t know about you but I’m glad for the weekend.
Monday…Is it bad that I can’t remember what happened Monday? skip it…I’ll start with today…

6:15 AM (should have been up at 5:30, but hey…it’s Friday- NO it does not matter that I did not crawl out of bed before 6:15 ANY day this week) ANYWAY, a little after 6 I wake up to Djembe turning on his shower and telling me to get up. Ugh. I don’t want to. And then…waaank.waaank.waaank.waaank. grrrrrr. arf (groggily b/c Tiki was asleep too) It sounds like there is a guinea hen right outside my window.

So I took Tiki out to do her business and no, it was not a guinea hen outside my window it was honking from my roof as my entire yard was being transformed into a scene from The Birds.

I took a little visitor with me to school today. Tweety persuaded me to bring Tiki to her show and tell time. Being the “I want to please my child at this special time” kinda mom I am, I said yes. To do this, I had to get creative. I made arrangements to leave during my first off period, and have my lunch study covered in case I am late returning. Even with that, I did not have time to come home, get Tiki, drive to Tweety’s school, back home, back to work. SO…I take Tiki with me. We were spending the day in the media center anyway so we enjoyed her company. My students loved it (9th graders) and the media center ladies didn’t mind. Not the first time someone has had a pet in there. We used to have a library cat, but someone complained. Understood. (Before anyone goes psycho comment on me, I did check with my students Thursday to be certain no one was allergic.) Tiki spent the morning with me and had a grand time. She went from person to person, loving every second of the attention. The students worked just fine and enjoyed the change of pace. BTW, show/tell went great and Tweety was thrilled that I brought her sweety *read hyperactive chewing machine* to school.

Have to brag on my kids (students) here. Those guys worked from start to finish today. It was the first time I attempted a media project with this group and they were top notch. Looks like it is going to be a GREAT semester. I love being able to create media activities for them. Such an enhancement to the everyday work-lecture/discuss-test when we can do group work, net and research activities!

Now if you read any of my earlier posts, I went to kick aerobics yesterday. I was great, until this afternoon…getting just a little stiff now, bout time for that hot bath to relax the muscles. ouch. but it’s a good ouch!

What city are you?

You Are Austin

A little bit country, a little bit rock and roll. You’re totally weird and very proud of it. Artistic and freaky, you still seem to fit in… in your own strange way. Famous Austin residents: Lance Armstrong, Sandra Bullock, Andy Roddick

wiped out

Just had my first kick aerobics class…WOW I’m exhausted. For fifty minutes we moved constantly. I was able to keep up without too much trouble. There were some coordination issues when I looked around at others. For a first class…not bad. I’m going to stick with it twice a week. It is a bit of a scheduling issue but Djembe is supportive. If my oldest wants to go back to taekwondo I will probably switch from kick aerobics to TKD. I enjoy it and the time works out better for me…plus, parents take free! Feels great to work out again…

Thursday Thirteen #5

Tiki came to us mid-November…came to us…um well I found her and persuaded Djembe to let me get her. No regrets on my part, but she is a handful. I’ve had to get up four times while typing this entry so that I could stop her from chewing, chasing, or eating something she shouldn’t. She is a red dapple miniature dachshund with a lot of energy. Sweet puppy and I’m so happy Djembe let me bring her home…

Thirteen Things about Tiki 1. Nine inches tall. 2. From tail tip to nose she is 28 inches long. 3. One brown eye, one blue eye. 4. Recently learned what "outside" means. 5. Likes to curl up in my laptop case when it's available. 6. Annoys the hell out of every animal she meets. 7. Chases the cat...because she can. 8. Steals "Tweety's" Barbies (and anything else she can get her teeth on). 9. Steals "Froggy's" four foot stuffed blue rattle snake. 10. Is currently chewing on a suede bath and body works bag. GRRR! BRB 11. Chewed three pencils, a My Little Pony, both of my favorite flip-flops, a white crayon, the measuring tape, and who knows what else...YESTERDAY! 12. Is now whimpering at the cat from the top of the kitchen table..WTH! BRB 13. Will curl up sleepily beside me in about an hour...snoring quietly waiting for a new day. Links to other Thursday Thirteens! Almost an Angel Norma

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Coal Mining: Walker County, AL

In 1872 Jasper, Alabama was a small village located some distance from a railroad. The main industries were lumber and farming. Modernity had not reached this small area and life was content for its people. They new nothing of modern inventions and luxuries, such as telephones and electricity. There was a village blacksmith, the crude schoolhouse, the wooden store buildings, and a courthouse also built of wood. There were games of marbles, checkers, horseshoe pitching, and horse-trading.

Jasper, the county seat of Walker County, was incorporated in 1889 and can claim coal and timber as its main industries. The city is a trade and processing center for both products. Walker County, formed in 1832, is located in Northwest-central Alabama. Historically, the main industry in Walker County is coal mining. Combined with nearby Jefferson County, Walker was at one time credited with sixty percent of Alabama’s coal production. Although still an industry of the county today, coal mining is declining and other industries such as: hay, corn, livestock, poultry, timber and natural gas production are becoming increasingly important. In 1872, the tremendous profitability and future boom industry of coal was unknown to the citizens of Jasper and Walker County. Capitalism and the railroad would eventually transform the area to a producer of necessity. Coal for trains, furnaces, homes and manufacturers would become the future of the small village of Jasper.

Walker County, even before its official formation in 1832, claimed coal as an important resource. Although, if the legend is true, they may not have known just how important it was. The story credits Walker County as the site for the first coal discovery in Alabama. Apparently, two men were camping on Lost Creek and built a fire receptacle with three black stones. After awakening from several hours sleep, the men were terrified to realize the stones surrounding their fire area were red and glowing. Believing it to be the supernatural work of the devil, they made a hasty retreat. Upon curious and educated investigation, other men discovered the presence of coal explaining away the supernatural glowing rock phenomenon. By 1830, Alabama began commercially producing coal in Tuscaloosa County. It was dug from seams near the river and shipped by boat through the Alabama river systems to Mobile. Due to the treacherous nature of river shipping, which required great skill and navigation ability, it was necessary to transport coal during the flood season. The boom days of Jasper began in 1887 when the Frisco Railroad built a route through Jasper from Memphis, Tennessee to Birmingham, Alabama.

A mineral rich area such as Jasper can contribute its previous isolation from a railroad to the money saving tactics of the railroad companies. Railroad companies serve to connect large cities in the North to port cities of the South. It was beneficial to them to take the shortest, and least expensive, route. This meant avoiding the hills and mountains of North Alabama. Therefore, the vast quantities of mineral wealth were left hidden and unmined. Momentous change was signaled for Walker County in 1884 as the railroad was first used loading coal from mines near Corona. In 1888, a Northern Alabama route into Jasper from a city in northwestern Alabama, Sheffield, was built. With the building of the Frisco and Northern Alabama lines, the coal mining industry of Walker County began serious development. With the discovery of the profitable nature and abundance of Alabama coal, more rail lines were built in Alabama. By the Civil War Alabama was proving to be a valuable state to the nation and the South. In 1920 there were 162 coalmines in Walker County. By 1925, “the total tonnage of coal from the various mines in the county (had reached) several million tons each year”. Plentiful coal deposits allowed Walker to become one of the richest counties in the state during the early 1900s. Most of that coal was mined underground.

Early coal miners would use picks and crowbars to dig coal from the creek and riverbeds. As underground mining became more prevalent the men continued to use picks and shovels but used mules to pull coal out of the mines. Each miner had a round piece of metal known as a “coal check” that was imprinted with his company name and his ID number. When he loaded a coal car he hung the check on the car so the people above ground would know who loaded the coal. Each miner was paid by the amount of coal he loaded. The miner worked by the light of a carbide lamp attached to his hat. Canaries were used to warn underground miners of the dangers of noxious gases. The tools used were usually made and repaired at the mine site by a blacksmith. He played a prominent role in the early mines. The blacksmith could shoe as many as thirty mules in one day. The mules used to pull mining cars were generally kept near the caretakers’ home. The children of the home were responsible for the mules care. Everyone from a father to his children had a role in the mining camp.

By modern standards mining camp life was not easy. Miners and their families usually lived in a company house located near the mine. Several houses would be aligned on both sides of the street to form the mining camp. The houses were modest with usually a front and back porch, two bedrooms, and a kitchen. There was no indoor plumbing therefore a path to the outhouse was a necessity. Early homes had no electricity or running water. Wells were centrally located in the camp for community use. Lighting consisted of kerosene lamps and a fireplace provided heat or wood/coal burning stove. The wood or coal burning stove would also be used for cooking and boiling water for laundry. Washday was the most difficult for the miner’s wife. She washed clothes in hot soapy water and then boiled clothes over a wash pot heated by a wood fire in the back yard. The clothes were then rubbed on a scrub board and roll pressed to remove water so they could be line dried. Although everyone was poor and daily tasks were many times difficult, some recall the mining camps as not a bad place to live. Some camps provided dance halls and movie houses. There was also camaraderie in the camp as everybody knew everybody.

The social gathering place for early coal miner and his family was the company store. It was a place that the men could swap stories or play checkers while their wives purchased goods for the home. Almost everything the family needed could be purchased from the company store. “Many miners, unable to survive until the biweekly pay day, would have to take an advance in the form of clacker or scrip”. To get full value the clacker had to be used in the company store owned by the miner’s employer. Some clacker looked like an admission ticket and was assigned a specific value. It was considered a merchandise trade check and usually included the company name on the front. Coinage was also used. Each store had its own symbol engraved or punched on the coinage. If a miner did not go to the company store that produced the clacker he would receive value for only eighty cents per dollar. If the miner did not pay with clacker the good could be charged to an account and deducted on pay day.

By necessity, both black and white mining families shopped in the company store. However, their pay counters were segregated. Most life in the mining camp was segregated. Although housing was virtually identical, blacks lived in one section of the camp and whites in the other. They also had separate schools. Within the mine blacks and whites worked side by side. In the early 1900s Alabama mine labor was approximately fifty percent white and fifty percent black. However, some operations were twenty-five percent white and seventy-five percent black. The state remained non-unionized in 1924 despite efforts of the United Mine Workers. In attempt for union recognition a serious strike occurred in 1920-1921. Many blacks participated as scabs for the purpose of having a job and the monetary benefits. One particular group at Powderly mining camp sought reciprocity for their work actions. Representatives of the African-American school wrote the Debardeleban Coal Company, as well as other companies, seeking a monetary contribution for their role in the beginning of the mine strike. The success of labor unions was allowed by hard economic times of the Great Depression resulting in the reduction of tons produced in the mine. It also allowed for the success of labor unions. Safety was of utmost concern for both black and white miners. It was one issue labor unions could use to obtain support.

One safety issue miners had to face was the transportation of coal from the interior of the mine to the surface. Several precautions had to be taken with regard to hauling coal. The passages for transport were required to be at adequate width; therefore the tunnels were driven through the coal and overhead rock removed. Lumber was used to support the tunnel. The tunnel trains were constructed in virtually the same way as a narrow gauge railroad. However, the nature and space limitations of a mine required more complex rail systems. In the use of trolley locomotives workers must be protected from electric shock. “The ends of steel rails in the track must be connected with copper wires (bonded) and copper trolley wires suspended from the roof above the rail opposite the rooms or working places.” Trolley wires would be shielded or suspended at least six and a half feet above the rail. Other precautions include separate walking passages, frequent holes for safety when a railcar passes, signals to warn of approaching carts, dispatchers and block signals for when two rail cars operate on one track. Frequent inspections must be made to insure the safety of miners.

Other safety issues include the prevention of falling rock and water removal. In establishing tunnels and rail lines, as well as the actual mining process, workers had to contend with water removal. A 1936 report estimated that for each ton of coal, in some mines, twenty tons of water must be removed. This is an expensive process requiring pumps, pipe, and specialized labor. A silent danger miners face is ventilation.

Seasons and climatic conditions do not affect underground miners. Throughout the year mine temperature remains constant. However, it is of the utmost importance that underground mines have a continuous supply of fresh air. The dangerous gases in the mine must either be diluted with fresh air or removed. Two methods of ventilation practiced in Alabama mines were continuous and split systems. The continuous system allows air pulled by fans to travel in a continuous stream through the mine tunnels. The split system divides the air current into separate current using regulations in the entry points and doors. The air is diverted to a specific section while the other current continues to the next split until the mine is properly ventilated. Proper ventilation and safety training is essential to the mortality of miners. “Although there were some improvements in Alabama mines during the 1920s and 1930s, there was always a danger of death or injury from rock falls, explosions, and machinery.” Between 1921 and 1942 there were 1445 fatalities in Alabama coal mines. Coal companies continue to strive for improved safety. Technological advances of the late 1900s contribute to the improvements in safety and method. Alabama began commercially producing coal around 1832. In 1856 Alabama’s first large scale underground mine opened. Between 1870 and 1926 the mining output in Alabama steadily rose to meet demand. Production fell in 1956, but increased during WWII. Although post war production fell, 1954 marked an upward trend supported by demand. New methods of mining were adapted to increase output.

Of the two types of mining, surface and underground, the nature of the deposit determines the method used. Surface, or strip, mining is generally preferred because of the great return. This is the most economic method when the coal can be mined near the surface. In the early years of strip-mining very little reclamation was done. By the early 1970s environmentalists were outraged. Amidst pressure, companies began more reclamation of stripped land. They replaced topsoil and vegetation, usually pines. Critics were still not happy. A Birmingham News staff reporter, Charles Richardson, stated in 1971, “Alabama’s lasting legacy is a ravished countryside.” Others praised the productivity and efficiency of strip mining claiming strides had been made to improve the environmental impact. Today, approximately sixty percent of coal is taken from surface mines. There are fifteen surface mines operating in Walker County today and a total of 32 in the state of Alabama. There are specific requirements for operating a surface mine. A company must first research the site with regard to environmental issues such as, climate, wildlife, vegetation and soil composition. An application must be made for a federal permit and the company must “post bond for each acre of land it mines to assure that it will be properly mined.” After the proper permits are rewarded, and fees paid, the company prepares the land for mining. It is first cleared with the topsoil stored for later use. Holes are drilled to allow explosives to reach the coal seam. Once the coal is reached and removed the reclamation process begins. The soil is replaced and all attempts are made, in accordance with the Federal Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act, to restore the land to a comparable or better productive state. Advocates of surface mining feel this process is sufficient and any risk is justifiable when evaluating the increased safety and output that surface mining offers.
As the demand for coal became greater, more efforts were made to increase production. Coal today is used to generate electricity. The demand has sustained Alabama coal production. “In 1992, about tree-fourths of Alabama coal production was distributed to domestic markets and nearly one-fourth was exported overseas.” Domestic use of coal was primarily more than 90% in Alabama. Since the 1960s, leading consumers of Alabama coal are electric utilities. Alabama coal is delivered to more than half of other industrial manufacturers. For example, paper and pulp mills, cement and lime plants, and organic fiber manufacturers. In Alabama, undoubtedly, coal is the most important mineral commodity with regard to production value. “In 1992, the State’s output of coal represented nearly one-half of the total estimated value of all mineral commodities production in the state, including crude oil and natural gas.”

The progress made in coal mining is directly related to the increase in consumption and demand. In the early history of the nation the forests of America provided the primary fuel. With industrial expansion an alternative fuel source was necessary. From the accidental use of black rocks for a coal fire in Walker County to being a leader in present day coal production, Alabama has made significant contributions to the coal mining industry.